Big-bang cosmology
The idea that the universe has risen from a singular point containing
infinite density of matter and energy at the beginning of time, and is
expanding since then, has remained the cornerstone in understanding the
cosmos. The origin of this belief lies in the General Theory of Relativity
formulated by Einstein in 1916. The solution of Einstein’s equations was based
on the assumption that wherever, and whichever direction in the cosmos one may
observe the distribution of matter it should appear homogeneous. The
consequence of this assumption led to the big-bang cosmology. Apart from the
observed recession of galaxies, which fitted with the predicted expanding
universe, when in 1960s an isotropic ball of microwave radiation was
discovered, it added further in strengthening the faith in this theory. Since
then it has reigned supreme.
Fractal universe
However, during the last few years, the sanctity of this assumption is
being questioned. A group at the University of Rome, led by Professor
Pietronero, has been claiming that the universe is inhomogeneous. The
distribution of cosmic structures is not the same everywhere. Their claim is
based on the fact that galaxies and clusters of galaxies all clump together.
This clumpiness persists even in the largest scale observed. These days a
vigorous debate between the adherents of homogeneous and inhomogeneous
universe is raging among the scientists. According to the opinion of one group
the universe will ultimately turn out to be homogeneous once the largest size
of the universe is explored, while the opponents claim that it is clumpy all
the way, and full of walls, knots, and chains. The group at Rome claims that
universe is, in fact, a fractal. A good example of a fractal is a cauliflower.
By breaking a cauliflower into smaller and even smaller parts, one retrieves
only self-similar structures in smaller and even smaller scales: What is seen
in the large appears in the small. This is a typical characteristic of any
fractal.
Multifractal universe
In the autumn of 1999, I first proposed an alternative theory in my
lectures at the University of Oslo and University of Trondheim, Norway, which
can accommodate the observed fractal nature of the cosmos, together with
recession of galaxies and microwave background radiation. The idea of
fractality in nature has been popularized by Mandelbrot in connection with the
development of Chaos theory. By now it has penetrated into many branches of
science as a way to understand complex systems, which self-organize, and
create self-similar structures in different scales.
In the inhomogeneous universe the filaments, loops and walls up to the
scale of the super-clusters of clusters of galaxies constitute not only a
fractal, but also a multifractal. The universe possesses filaments of
different strengths. If one picks the filaments of one particular strength,
they form a monofractal. Thus filaments of different strengths form different
fractals. A set of these fractals is a multifractal.
Turbulence: Universe seen in the everyday world
Surprisingly the multifractal universe appears to be similar to the
multifractality which one observes in whirling eddies in water, fire, or in
clouds on Earth. What we observe everyday flying in front of our eyes as
twisted and entangled clouds in the sky carry the mystery of the entire
universe imprinted on them. The same is true in turbulent eddies moving in
water flows, or twisting clouds of smokes, or leaps of flames unravelling as
filaments and loops. It is believed that such a turbulence is chaotic, and can
only be understood by statistical methods. This belief is based on our notions
of time and space, and our traditional understanding of nature, which includes
the concept of local causality among others. However, it turns out that at the
heart of turbulence lies a design, which remains the same in all scales. It is
like a Russian doll – replicas of the same enwombed within each other in
smaller and smaller scales. In fact, it is more interesting than the Russian
doll ! By breaking any doll of any size one discovers the same doll again and
again in the broken parts ! One can not get rid of the whole by breaking it
into parts. It is diametrically opposite to the scientific belief that nature
can be broken into its elementary constituents, and by knowing the local
interactions among them one may understand the whole. Instead, wherever one
may look, the universe images itself in the smaller structures. And this image
is not space filling: There lie holes and voids perforating the structures
like in a Swiss cheese.
Determinism versus indeterminism
It also brings in a new perspective the question of determinism versus
indeterminism. It is possible to reduce turbulence into a set of geometrical
units, which can be assembled together and put inside each other in scales
within scales as in the Russian doll. To carry the analogy further, let us
assume that the dolls are made of transparent media and on the body of each
doll intertwined flowery designs are drawn. After assembling all dolls inside
each other, while rotating them by a fixed angle at each descending level, one
will see a very complex drawing once one looks at the whole embedding through
the transparent media. Though the underlying design is well organized at all
levels, the total view of the design will appear chaotic. The flow in
turbulence is very similar. At each scale there exists a definite pattern of
flow. However, when motions in several scales are observed together the flow
appears utterly chaotic. Thus, behind the so-called indeterminism and chaos in
the local scale lie determinism and perfect order in a scale invariant global
world.
Life and death here is death and life there and vice
versa
The most characteristic features of the cosmic structures are filaments,
loops and knots. These filamentary structures are abundantly observed
everywhere in all scales, starting from nebulae to scales ranging up to the
super-clusters of clusters of galaxies and even beyond. The presence of knots
and filaments make a region more inhomogeneous. These inhomogeneous structures
undergo evolutions in a more homogeneous fractal background. This dynamics is
basically governed by the twisting of filaments and formation of knots and
their subsequent break ups. The twisting and untwisting of filaments and
tightening and break up of knots generate forces of attractions and
repulsions. As the knots break up and filaments untwist violent ejections
occur making the region look like an expanding system. In the opposite case,
when the knots form and tighten, and the filaments twist more and more, the
surrounding disorder is brought into order, and attracted towards the
inhomogeneous structures. Thus the dynamics of the universe repeatedly change
between an accumulation and growth phase, and a dispersive and a break up
phase. The tensions in the helically coiled filaments generate attractive
forces. More and more ordering process proceeds, more and more tensions
develop in the system. After reaching a critical point the system breaks, and
a repulsive force throws the structures into the surrounding. Once this
dispersion takes place and disorderliness increases, the system reacts by
building knotty structures. The knots halt the disorder, and bring forth the
attractive mechanism once again into play. Thus the universe perpetually
pulsates from growth to decay and vice versa everywhere in all scales. Every
region in the universe is interlinked with each other, while they interact by
splitting, break up, ejection and merging of structures: Life and death here
becomes death and life there and vice versa!
Perfectly ordered universe carrying an eternal design
This fluctuation between growth and decay is a-priori condition behind the
existence of the universe itself. With the expanding and contracting
mechanism, information from the global structure arrives to the local
structures, and similarly information from the local structures return back to
the global arena. This symbiotic relation between the local and the global is
a necessity for the mechanisms of survival to work. With the entanglement of
the local with the global, energy is poured in from larger structures to the
smaller ones, while cascading downward to smaller and even smaller scales. The
entanglement is so meticulously designed that while receiving energy from the
mother structure, daughter structures feed back a part of its energy to the
larger structures. Through complex entanglements in different scales the
structures self-regularize inflows and outflows bringing forth a design that
remains the same in all scales. All seem to happen in order to sustain an
eternal design everywhere. Thus locally ever-changing worlds remain immersed
in a timeless universe.
Universe without beginning and end
It brings forth many new perspectives: In contradiction with the big-bang
theory, this theory brings time into a timeless perspective, while the
universe rises from its own ashes, and perpetuates its existence by a
mechanism of self-regularization by a dynamics of inflow and feedback. The
universe never was; it will never be. It is always there, and always the same.
It fluctuates and pulsates everywhere in order to recreate the design
everywhere in all scales again and again.
According to Einstein’s theory when the gravitational attraction of a body
causes its self-collapse, that can not be halted by any other force of nature,
a black-hole will form. It is speculated that such black-holes may reside at
the centres of the galactic nuclei. Discoveries of
black-holes have been recently reported by the measurement of x-rays sources
at the galactic centres. In my view these x-ray
sources could arise due to highly coiled filaments
at the core of the galaxies, where knots form, while
streams of infalling ionized gases twirl at
an extremely high speed.
PAPERS
To be included later
